Theme 1 Writing And City Life

City life originated in the ancient land of **Mesopotamia**, situated between the Euphrates and Tigris rivers, in what is modern-day Iraq. This civilization is celebrated for its economic prosperity, the development of urban centers, extensive and rich literary works, and significant advancements in mathematics and astronomy.

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Mesopotamia's groundbreaking writing system and its literature profoundly influenced the wider region. After 2000 BCE, Mesopotamian language and script were adopted for communication among kingdoms in the eastern Mediterranean, northern Syria, and Turkey, enabling written correspondence even with the Egyptian Pharaoh.

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This chapter will investigate the fundamental link between the rise of city life and the development of writing, and explore the lasting impact of having a well-established tradition of written communication.

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In the earliest recorded history, the southern, more urbanized part of Mesopotamia was referred to as **Sumer and Akkad**. After 2000 BCE, when Babylon became a prominent city, the southern region became known as **Babylonia**. Later, around 1100 BCE, the Assyrians established their kingdom in the north, leading to that area being called **Assyria**.

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The initial known language of Mesopotamia was **Sumerian**. Over time, it was gradually replaced by the **Akkadian** language around 2400 BCE with the arrival of Akkadian speakers. Akkadian remained a significant language until around the time of Alexander the Great (336-323 BCE), undergoing some regional variations. From 1400 BCE onwards, **Aramaic** also began to spread, becoming widely spoken after 1000 BCE and remarkably, is still spoken in some parts of Iraq today.

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Archaeological investigations in Mesopotamia commenced in the 1840s. Excavations at key sites like Uruk and Mari continued for several decades, representing exceptionally long-term projects compared to many other archaeological endeavors globally. Besides studying numerous buildings, statues, ornaments, graves, tools, and seals, archaeologists have unearthed thousands of **written documents**, providing an unparalleled wealth of information about Mesopotamian society.

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Mesopotamia held particular importance for Europeans due to its mention in the **Old Testament** (the first part of the Christian Bible). For instance, the Book of Genesis refers to 'Shimar' (understood to mean Sumer) as a land of brick-built cities. European travelers and scholars often viewed Mesopotamia as a form of ancestral homeland, and early archaeological work in the region was sometimes motivated by a desire to literally prove the narratives of the Old Testament, such as the story of the Great Flood.

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An early example of this was a British newspaper funding a British Museum expedition in 1873 specifically to find a tablet recounting the Flood story mentioned in the Bible. By the 1960s, archaeological perspectives shifted. While acknowledging that Old Testament stories might preserve memories of significant historical events, the focus moved away from literal proof. Archaeological techniques became much more advanced, and interest expanded to reconstructing the lives of ordinary people, not just rulers or major events. Much of our modern understanding of Mesopotamia is based on these later, more sophisticated studies and the vast number of written records discovered.

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Mesopotamia And Its Geography

Iraq, the land corresponding to ancient Mesopotamia, boasts a diverse geographical landscape.

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• In the **north-east**, there are green, rolling plains that rise towards tree-covered mountain ranges. This area receives sufficient rainfall to support agriculture, which began here between 7000 and 6000 BCE.
• The **north** features an upland area known as the **steppe**. With only moderate rainfall, this region is better suited for animal herding (pastoralism) than extensive farming. Sheep and goats graze on the grasses and shrubs that grow after the winter rains.
• To the **east**, tributaries of the Tigris River provide natural routes into the mountainous regions of Iran.
• The **south** of Mesopotamia is predominantly a **desert**. Remarkably, this arid region is where the earliest cities and the development of writing took place. This was possible because the two major rivers, the Euphrates and the Tigris, originating in the northern mountains, carried vast amounts of fertile **silt**. When the rivers flooded or were used for irrigation, this silt was deposited onto the fields, making the desert soil highly productive for agriculture, despite insufficient local rainfall.

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The Euphrates, after entering the desert, divides into smaller channels. These channels would flood and serve as irrigation canals, allowing water to be directed to fields of crops like wheat, barley, peas, and lentils when needed. Southern Mesopotamia's agriculture was exceptionally productive, perhaps the most productive among ancient systems, due to this effective irrigation and fertile silt deposition.

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Beyond agriculture, the steppe and plains regions supported abundant sheep and goat herding, providing meat, milk, and wool. Fish were available in the rivers, and date-palms yielded fruit in the summer. However, urban growth was not solely dependent on rural prosperity. Other factors, particularly related to economic specialization and organization, were crucial for the development of cities.

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The Significance Of Urbanism

Cities and towns are more than just densely populated places. **Urbanism** signifies a shift in economy where activities beyond food production become increasingly important. In addition to agriculture (often practiced in surrounding areas), urban economies thrive on **trade, manufacturing, and services**. This leads to a significant division of labor and interdependence among people. City dwellers are typically not self-sufficient; they rely on goods and services provided by other specialists, both within the city and from surrounding villages.

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For instance, a craftsman who specializes in carving stone seals needs tools made of metal (like bronze) and materials like coloured stones (like lapis lazuli) which he cannot produce or acquire himself. The metalworker specializing in bronze tools, in turn, relies on others to provide the raw materials (copper and tin) and fuel (charcoal). This **specialization** and **division of labor** are defining characteristics of urban life.

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The complexity of urban economies necessitates a sophisticated **social organization**. Resources like fuel, metals, various stones, and wood need to be acquired from diverse, often distant, locations to support city manufacturers. This requires organized systems for trade and storage. The continuous flow of food supplies from villages to the city also needs management, including storage and distribution systems. Numerous different specialized activities (like pottery, weaving, metalworking, seal carving) must be coordinated to ensure that materials and tools are available when and where needed.

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This level of organization implies a social structure where some individuals have the authority to issue commands and others follow them. Furthermore, complex urban transactions and coordination often require the **keeping of written records**. The earliest Mesopotamian cities, dating back to the Bronze Age (c. 3000 BCE), demonstrate this link between urban development, economic specialization, and the need for record-keeping, which spurred the development of writing.

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The Warka Head, a sculpted woman's head from Uruk (before 3000 BCE), exemplifies the advanced craftsmanship in early Mesopotamian cities. Carved from imported white marble, its detailed features (mouth, chin, cheeks) indicate a high level of skill. The head was likely adorned with inlays of lapis lazuli (for eyes/eyebrows), shell, and bitumen, materials that also would have been imported. The creation of such a piece involved numerous specialists: stone procurers (from distant lands), sculptors skilled in carving hard stone, and likely craftsmen specializing in working with lapis lazuli, shell, and bitumen for the inlays.

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The Warka Head

The Warka Head, a striking sculpture from Uruk dating back to before 3000 BCE, is crafted from imported white marble. This piece is celebrated for its delicate and refined modeling of facial features like the mouth, chin, and cheeks. Originally, the eyes and eyebrows were enhanced with inlays of precious or contrasting materials such as blue lapis lazuli, white shell, and black bitumen. A groove on the top might have held an ornament. The use of hard, imported stone highlights the technical skill and access to trade networks present in Uruk. The creation of this sculpture would have involved a chain of specialized labor: individuals to source and transport the stone from afar, highly skilled sculptors to shape the hard material, and artisans proficient in working with inlay materials like lapis lazuli and shell to complete the eyes and eyebrows.

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Movement Of Goods Into Cities

While southern Mesopotamia was rich in food resources due to its productive agriculture (made possible by river water and silt), it was poor in **mineral resources**. The south lacked essential materials like stones for tools, seals, and jewelry, suitable wood for carts or boats (local date-palm and poplar wood were insufficient), and metals for tools, vessels, or ornaments. This scarcity necessitated **trade** with other regions that possessed these resources.

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Historical evidence suggests that Mesopotamians traded their abundant agricultural produce and textiles for wood, copper, tin (needed for bronze), silver, gold, shell, and various types of stones. These materials were likely sourced from regions like Turkey and Iran, or potentially across the Persian Gulf, which had mineral wealth but less agricultural capacity.

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**Regular and organized exchanges** were essential to maintain the supply of these vital materials to the growing urban centers. This required a social organization capable of equipping and directing foreign trading expeditions and managing the exchange of goods. The people of southern Mesopotamia took the initiative in establishing these extensive trade networks.

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**Efficient transport** was equally critical for urban development. Transporting large quantities of grain or other goods into cities using pack animals (like donkeys) or bullock carts was slow, laborious, and required feeding the animals, adding to the cost. **Water transport** was by far the cheapest and most efficient method. River boats or barges could be loaded with heavy cargo and propelled by the river current or wind. The natural channels and canals of Mesopotamia served as crucial routes for transporting goods between large and small settlements. The Euphrates, in particular, functioned as a major "world route," facilitating the movement of goods from northern regions and even distant lands towards the urban centers of the south, as evidenced in accounts related to cities like Mari.

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The Development Of Writing

All human societies have spoken languages, where specific sounds carry meaning, facilitating verbal communication. **Writing** is also a form of verbal communication, but it represents these spoken sounds using visible signs or symbols (a script).

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The earliest written Mesopotamian tablets date back to around **3200 BCE**. These initial tablets contained **picture-like signs** (pictographs) and **numbers**. The earliest examples, found in Uruk, were lists of goods (like oxen, fish, bread loaves) brought into or distributed from the temples. This clearly indicates that writing emerged in Mesopotamia out of the **necessity to keep records of transactions** in city life. In urban settings, transactions were more frequent, involved more people, and a greater variety of goods compared to village life, making memory insufficient for accurate record-keeping.

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Mesopotamians primarily wrote on **clay tablets**. A scribe would prepare a moist clay tablet, smooth its surface, and then use the sharp, wedge-shaped end of a cut reed (a stylus) to press signs into the wet clay. These marks were wedge-shaped, giving rise to the term **cuneiform** (from Latin words for 'wedge' and 'shape'). Once the clay dried in the sun, the tablet hardened and became durable, like pottery. Tablets that were no longer relevant were discarded. Because signs could only be pressed into wet clay, each new transaction, even minor ones, required a new tablet. This is why archaeologists have found hundreds of thousands of clay tablets at Mesopotamian sites, providing an invaluable source of information, far surpassing what is available from contemporary India where writing might have been on less durable materials.

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By around **2600 BCE**, the script had evolved, with signs becoming more abstract and cuneiform in appearance. The language used was Sumerian. The scope of writing expanded beyond simple records. It was used to create dictionaries, provide legal documentation (e.g., for land transfers), record the achievements of kings (narratives), and announce changes in customary laws.

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Sumerian, the earliest known language, was gradually replaced by Akkadian after 2400 BCE. However, cuneiform script continued to be used to write the Akkadian language until the first century CE, demonstrating a remarkable longevity of over 2,000 years for this writing system.

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The System Of Writing

The cuneiform writing system was complex. Unlike alphabetic scripts where each sign represents a single sound (consonant or vowel), a cuneiform sign typically represented a **syllable** (a combination of sounds, like -la-, -put-, -in-). This meant that scribes had to learn hundreds of signs. They also needed to be highly skilled in manipulating and writing on wet clay tablets quickly before they dried. Writing was thus a specialized craft and a significant intellectual achievement, requiring scribes to map the spoken sounds of their language onto a complex visual system.

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Literacy

In ancient Mesopotamia, **literacy rates were very low**. Most people could not read or write. This was largely due to the complexity of the cuneiform script, with its hundreds of signs, many of which were intricate. Kings who were literate often boasted about this ability in their inscriptions. Writing primarily served the purposes of the elite and administration, often reflecting the formal style of spoken communication used in official contexts, such as letters beginning with formal address lines. Some texts, like long poems, might have been intended to be read aloud or recited, suggesting a form of oral transmission alongside written preservation for literary works.

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The Uses Of Writing

A long Sumerian epic poem about **King Enmerkar** of Uruk highlights the perceived connection between city life, trade, and the invention of writing. Uruk is presented as the archetypal city. The epic recounts Enmerkar's efforts to acquire lapis lazuli and precious metals from a distant land called Aratta for decorating a city temple. His messenger made arduous journeys back and forth, but failed to persuade the chief of Aratta. The messenger eventually became exhausted and confused, unable to relay the king's complex messages accurately.

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According to the poem, King Enmerkar then took clay and wrote down his words, stating that "In those days, there had been no writing down of words on clay." When the chief of Aratta received the written tablet, he was perplexed by the "spoken words" (the cuneiform signs), which are described metaphorically as "nails" (referencing the wedge shape of cuneiform marks). While this story might not be historically accurate regarding the very first act of writing, it reflects the Mesopotamian belief that kingship was instrumental in organizing trade and that writing emerged as a necessary tool for this complex organization.

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The epic also suggests that writing was viewed as a symbol of the sophistication and superiority of Mesopotamian urban culture, serving not only as a practical means of storing information and sending messages but also as a marker of civilization.

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Urbanisation In Southern Mesopotamia: Temples And Kings

Settlements began to flourish in southern Mesopotamia from around 5000 BCE. The earliest cities developed from some of these initial villages. These urban centers evolved in different ways: some grew around **temples** (temple towns), others became centers of **trade**, and later, some developed into **imperial cities**. Here, the focus is on the development of temple towns and trade centers.

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Early settlers in southern Mesopotamia started building and rebuilding simple shrines made of unbaked bricks at chosen spots within their villages. These early temples were considered the dwelling places of various gods and goddesses, such as the Moon God of Ur or Inanna, the Goddess of Love and War. Over time, these brick-built temples became larger and more complex, featuring multiple rooms arranged around open courtyards. While some early temples might have resembled ordinary houses (as they were seen as the 'house' of a god), they were distinguished by their outer walls, which had a characteristic in-and-out facade at regular intervals.

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The god/goddess residing in the temple was the central figure of worship. People brought offerings of grain, curd, and fish to the deity (archaeological finds confirm this, with thick layers of fish bones found in some early temple floors). The god was also conceptually considered the owner of the agricultural lands, fisheries, and herds belonging to the local community. Over time, temples expanded their functions to include the **processing of produce** (like oil pressing, grain grinding, spinning, and weaving). They became major organizers of production beyond the household level, employing merchants and keeping detailed written records of the distribution of goods like grain, animals, bread, beer, and fish. Thus, the **temple gradually evolved into a key urban institution**, managing economic activities and accumulating wealth and influence.

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However, agriculture in southern Mesopotamia, despite its fertility, faced challenges. Natural river channels could cause devastating floods in some years or shift course, leaving villages without water in others. Man-made issues also led to conflict; villages located upstream on an irrigation channel could divert excessive water or neglect channel maintenance, impacting villages downstream. This led to repeated **conflict over land and water** in the early Mesopotamian countryside.

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In times of warfare, successful war leaders gained influence by distributing loot to their followers and using war captives as laborers or guards. Such leadership could be temporary. However, over time, successful leaders who contributed to the community's well-being through organizing labor, acquiring resources, and beautifying temples gained more lasting status and authority. By offering valuable goods to the gods, they enhanced the community's temples and demonstrated their power and connection to the divine. Organizing expeditions to get materials like stones and metals, and managing the distribution of temple resources efficiently through accounting, further solidified the king's status and ability to command the community. This suggests a cycle where military success could lead to increased influence, which was then used to organize economic activities and contribute to urban institutions like temples, ultimately granting the leader (king) high status and authority.

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At Uruk, one of the earliest urban centers, this development cycle is evident. Archaeological surveys show that around 3000 BCE, Uruk expanded significantly to 250 hectares, leading to the abandonment of many small villages nearby, indicating a major population shift towards the city. Uruk also developed a defensive wall early on, suggesting the importance of protection in this period of conflict. The city remained continuously inhabited for thousands of years, expanding further to 400 hectares by 2800 BCE.

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War captives and local residents were compelled to work for the temple or the ruler, a form of compulsory labor rather than tax. These laborers received rations, as evidenced by numerous ration lists found by archaeologists, detailing the quantities of grain, cloth, or oil distributed to individuals. The scale of labor involved was immense; it is estimated that building one temple might have required 1,500 men working 10 hours a day for five years.

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The organization of labor by rulers also spurred technical advancements around Uruk (c. 3000 BCE). **Bronze tools** became more common, aiding various crafts. Architects developed techniques to build **brick columns** to support the roofs of large buildings in the absence of suitable timber. Craftsmanship flourished, with examples like the Warka Head sculpted from imported stone and intricate mosaics created using painted clay cones pressed into temple walls. A crucial technological innovation appropriate for an urban economy with increased demand was the widespread adoption of the **potter's wheel**, enabling the mass production of pottery. (Various steles and seal impressions are shown, illustrating art and depictions of rulers, warfare, and labor).

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Life In The City

Archaeological findings reveal aspects of daily life in ancient Mesopotamian cities. The evidence suggests the emergence of a ruling elite that controlled a significant portion of the wealth, as seen in the lavish items buried with royalty at Ur. However, legal texts provide insights into the lives of ordinary citizens.

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In Mesopotamian society, the **nuclear family** (parents and children) was the standard domestic unit, though it was common for a married son and his family to live with his parents. The father held the position of head of the family. Marriage customs involved a formal declaration, consent from the bride's parents, and gifts exchanged between both families. Gifts were also exchanged during the wedding ceremony, often involving a communal meal and offerings at a temple. The bride received her share of inheritance from her father upon being fetched by her mother-in-law. Inheritance of the father's property (house, herds, fields) typically passed to the sons.

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Excavations at **Ur**, one of the oldest cities, particularly in its residential areas from the 1930s, provide details about urban layout and housing (Figure 6.17 shows a residential area at Ur). The city had narrow, winding streets, suggesting that wheeled carts could not access many houses; goods likely arrived on donkey-back. The irregular shapes of house plots and lack of street planning contrast with contemporary cities like Mohenjo-daro. Street drains were absent in Ur's residential areas. Instead, drains and clay pipes were found within the inner courtyards of houses, indicating that roofs sloped inward, channeling rainwater into covered sumps within the courtyard, likely to prevent muddy streets. However, people apparently disposed of household refuse in the streets, causing street levels to rise over time and necessitating the raising of house thresholds to prevent mud intrusion.

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Houses in Ur typically received light not from windows on the street side but from doorways opening into the inner courtyards, providing privacy for families. Superstitions related to houses were recorded on omen tablets found at Ur, reflecting beliefs about thresholds, door placement, and their effects on fortune and family harmony.

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Ur had a town cemetery where both royalty and commoners were buried. Additionally, some individuals were found buried beneath the floors of ordinary houses, suggesting diverse burial practices.

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The Seal – An Urban Artefact

In contrast to the stamped seals used in contemporary India, Mesopotamia developed and used **cylindrical stone seals** (Figure 6.18 shows cylinder seals and impressions). These seals, carved by skilled craftsmen and sometimes bearing writing (owner's name, god, position), were rolled over wet clay surfaces to create a continuous impression. They were pierced down the center to be fitted onto a stick for rolling. (Figure 6.18 shows examples of cylinder seals and their impressions).

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Seals served practical purposes, such as sealing the string knot of a package or the mouth of a pot to secure its contents. When rolled on a clay tablet letter, the seal served as a mark of authenticity and confirmed the sender's identity. The seal thus became a symbol of the city dweller's role and identity in the public life of the city, used in trade, administration, and personal communication.

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A Trading Town In A Pastoral Zone

While urban centers like Uruk thrived on intensive agriculture in the south, other cities developed based on different economic foundations. **Mari**, a royal capital that flourished after 2000 BCE, provides an example of a city strategically located to prosper from **trade**, situated further upstream on the Euphrates outside the most productive southern agricultural plain (Map 3 shows the location of Mari).

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The region around Mari involved both agriculture and animal rearing. Some communities integrated both practices, while large parts of the territory were extensive pasturelands for sheep and goats. There was an interdependence between herders and farmers: herders exchanged animal products (young animals, cheese, leather, meat) for grain and metal tools from farmers. Herders' manure was also valuable for fertilizing fields. However, conflict could arise, such as herders allowing flocks to graze on cultivated fields or settled communities restricting herders' access to water sources.

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Throughout Mesopotamian history, nomadic communities from the western desert, including groups like the Akkadians, Amorites, Assyrians, and Aramaeans, would migrate into the agricultural heartland. They might arrive as herders, seasonal laborers (harvesting crops), or hired soldiers. Some became prosperous and settled down, and a few even gained sufficient power to establish their own rule, contributing to the cultural intermixture of Mesopotamian society. The kings of Mari were Amorites, identifiable by their distinct dress compared to the original Sumerian inhabitants. They integrated into Mesopotamian culture while also respecting their own deities, like Dagan, god of the steppe, for whom they built a temple in Mari. This openness to different people and cultures may have contributed to the vitality of the Mesopotamian civilization.

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The Palace At Mari Of King Zimrilim (1810-1760 Bce)

The extensive **palace at Mari** (built during the reign of King Zimrilim, 1810-1760 BCE) was a central institution in the city (Figure 6.19 provides a plan of the palace). It served multiple purposes: the residence of the royal family, the administrative hub of the kingdom, and a place of production, particularly for crafting precious metal ornaments. The palace was renowned throughout the region; a minor king from northern Syria reportedly traveled to Mari just to see it.

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Daily records from the palace indicate huge quantities of food (flour, bread, meat, fish, fruit, beer, wine) were consumed at the king's table, suggesting he hosted and fed many people daily. The palace had only one main entrance, located on the north. It featured large, paved open courtyards. Foreign dignitaries and local people would be received in the audience hall, which was adorned with wall paintings designed to impress visitors. The palace was a sprawling structure covering 2.4 hectares with 260 rooms, reflecting the complexity of administration and royal life in Mari.

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The kings of Mari, despite their prosperity, had to maintain constant vigilance over the herding communities within their territory. While herders were allowed to move seasonally, they were monitored. Correspondence between kings and officials frequently mention herders' camps and suspicious activities, such as fire signals used for communication between camps, raising concerns about potential raids or attacks.

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Mari's location on the Euphrates was ideal for trade. The river served as a vital route for transporting various goods – wood, copper, tin, oil, wine, and other commodities – between the southern Mesopotamian cities and the mineral-rich uplands to the north and west (Turkey, Syria, Lebanon). Boats carrying cargo would stop at Mari. Officers would inspect the cargo (e.g., a single boat could hold 300 wine jars) and levy a tax (around one-tenth the value of the goods) before allowing boats to proceed downstream. Grain was transported in special boats. Notably, tablets from Mari mention trade in **copper from Alashiya** (identified as the island of Cyprus, known for its copper deposits) and **tin**, both crucial for making bronze, the main industrial metal of the time. This strategic control over trade made the kingdom of Mari exceptionally prosperous, despite not being the strongest military power in the region.

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Excavating Mesopotamian Towns

Modern archaeological excavation standards in Mesopotamia are much higher in accuracy and recording compared to early digs like the extensive excavations at Ur in the 1930s. Today, archaeologists excavate smaller areas more carefully, sifting through large quantities of earth to recover tiny remains like plant seeds, animal bones, and artifacts. This meticulous approach allows for detailed reconstruction of past life, even for ordinary people.

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At sites like the small town of Abu Salabikh (10 hectares, population less than 10,000 in 2500 BCE), archaeologists used techniques like scraping surfaces to trace wall outlines. By carefully scraping off the top soil, they could identify changes in soil color, texture, and the lines of brick walls or pits in the slightly moist earth underneath. Excavated houses provided insights into dwelling structures. Sieving earth recovered plant and animal remains, helping to identify species and diet. Charred fish bones found in streets indicated consumption of fish. Plant seeds and fibers found where dung cakes were burned helped identify kitchen areas. Living rooms were those with fewer remains of daily activities. The discovery of young pig teeth in streets suggested that pigs roamed freely. Even burial practices provided clues; one house burial contained pig bones, interpreted as provision for the afterlife. Microscopic studies of room floors helped determine which areas were roofed or open to the sky, based on traces of roofing materials like poplar logs, palm leaves, and straw.

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Cities In Mesopotamian Culture

Mesopotamians held a deep appreciation for city life, which they saw as a place where people from diverse communities and cultures coexisted. The value placed on cities is reflected in their literature, which often commemorated cities even after their destruction in warfare.

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The end of the **Gilgamesh Epic**, one of the most famous Mesopotamian literary works (written on twelve tablets), powerfully illustrates this pride. Gilgamesh, a legendary hero and ruler of Uruk (perhaps after Enmerkar), embarked on a quest for immortality after the death of his friend Enkidu. After failing in his heroic efforts to overcome mortality, Gilgamesh returned to Uruk. He found solace not in thoughts of future generations, but by walking along the city wall, admiring the solid foundations built of fired bricks that he himself had constructed. The epic concludes with Gilgamesh finding comfort in the tangible achievement of his people's city, emphasizing the significance of the city itself as a lasting legacy.

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The Legacy Of Writing

While oral traditions can transmit stories and narratives across generations, the development of **science and scholarly knowledge** requires written texts. Written records allow scholars to preserve information, study the work of predecessors, verify findings, and build upon accumulated knowledge over centuries. Perhaps the most enduring legacy of Mesopotamia to the world is its tradition of scholarship, particularly in the fields of **time reckoning** and **mathematics**.

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Tablets dating back to around 1800 BCE reveal advanced mathematical knowledge, including multiplication and division tables, tables for calculating squares and square roots, and even calculations for compound interest. Mesopotamians developed methods to solve complex problems, such as calculating the volume of water needed to cover a field to a certain depth. Their mathematical system, based on a sexagesimal (base-60) system, influenced subsequent civilizations.

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Crucially, the Mesopotamians are credited with innovations in time division that are still used today:

• Dividing the year into 12 months based on the moon's orbit.
• Dividing the month into four weeks.
• Dividing the day into 24 hours.
• Dividing the hour into 60 minutes.

These time divisions were adopted by the Hellenistic world (successors of Alexander the Great), transmitted to the Roman Empire, then to the Islamic world, and subsequently to medieval Europe, becoming the standard system we use daily. Mesopotamian astronomers also maintained detailed records of celestial observations, noting the occurrence of solar and lunar eclipses and the positions of stars and constellations.

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These significant intellectual achievements in mathematics and astronomy would have been impossible without a system of writing and the existence of urban institutions like **schools**. Schools were vital for training scribes, not just for basic record-keeping but also for intellectual pursuits. Students copied older texts, ensuring the preservation and transmission of knowledge. Some were trained specifically to become scholars capable of advancing the work of previous generations, contributing to a continuous tradition of learning.

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The interest in preserving and studying early Mesopotamian texts and traditions was not confined to modern scholars. Evidence from the iron age indicates attempts were made in ancient times to locate and collect historical documents.

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An Early Library

In the iron age, the Assyrians, who established a vast empire (height from 720 to 610 BCE), acknowledged the cultural superiority of the southern region, Babylonia. The last great Assyrian king, **Assurbanipal** (668-627 BCE), was a notable collector and established a large **library** at his capital, Nineveh, in the north. He made systematic efforts to assemble a comprehensive collection of tablets covering history, epics (including the Epic of Gilgamesh), omen literature, astrology, hymns, and poems. Assurbanipal sent his scribes to Babylonia to search for old and important tablets. Babylonian towns were centers of learning with schools where scribes were trained by copying numerous tablets, leading to the creation of large, famous collections. Even though Sumerian ceased to be spoken after about 1800 BCE, it was still taught in schools through various bilingual texts and sign lists, meaning that cuneiform tablets from much earlier periods were still intelligible centuries later. Assurbanipal's scribes knew where to find these ancient texts or their copies.

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Scribes meticulously copied important texts, often adding their name and the date. Some tablets included colophons referencing Assurbanipal's efforts in collecting and preserving the knowledge. His library at Nineveh contained approximately 1,000 different texts, totaling about 30,000 tablets, which were organized and catalogued by subject using clay labels. Assurbanipal's library demonstrates a conscious effort in antiquity to systematically collect, organize, and preserve a vast body of written knowledge.

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And, An Early Archaeologist!

Following the decline of the Assyrian Empire, **Nabonidus** became the last ruler of independent Babylon in 625 BCE. Babylon experienced a period of renewal and building projects under Nabonidus and his predecessors, becoming a premier city known for its impressive architecture (triple walls, palaces, temples, ziggurat), trade, and intellectual achievements in mathematics and astronomy.

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Nabonidus himself appears to have engaged in activities resembling those of a modern archaeologist or historian, showing a deep interest in ancient traditions and artifacts. He recorded instances where he sought information about past practices and rulers. For example, he described searching for information about the ancient office of High Priestess in the town of Ur, which had been forgotten. He recounted finding a **stele** (stone slab) of a much earlier king (dated today to about 1150 BCE) that depicted the Priestess, providing him with details about her clothing and jewelry, enabling him to appropriately dress his daughter for her consecration to the role.

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On another occasion, Nabonidus's men found a broken statue inscribed with the name of Sargon, the famous king of Akkad (who ruled around 2370 BCE). Nabonidus, aware of this great king from remote history, ordered skilled craftsmen to repair the statue out of "reverence for the gods and respect for kingship." These accounts from Nabonidus's writings demonstrate an ancient interest in uncovering and preserving the material and textual remnants of the past, reflecting a historical consciousness and a desire to connect with earlier periods of Mesopotamian civilization.

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